Chapter summaries for Instructional Design 2nd Ed. By Smith and Ragan


Ch.7 Instructional Strategy
Instructional strategies encompass the entire process of conscientiously developing a lesson. Chapter seven focuses on the Organizational Strategy Characteristics: which content is included, the order of instruction, and methods of presentation. The organizational strategies of a lesson include gearing up learners with an Introduction to activate background knowledge and establish learning goals for the lesson. The Body of the lesson gains student attention and prompts their engagement. After the information has been presented in the Body of the lesson, the Conclusion should support the learning goals from the Introduction by facilitating the transfer of information. Finally, the Assessment gives students the opportunity to demonstrate their acquisition of the knowledge and gives teachers the opportunity to determine if further instruction is necessary based on overall student results (Ragan & Smith, 1999).

Ch.8 Strategies for Problem-Solving Instruction
Problem Solving is a higher order thinking skill related to specific content areas or domains. For instruction in solving problems to be successful, the learner must have declarative knowledge and be able to transfer information using cognitive strategies to apply the principles. This is very complex, and for students with processing disorders may be quite frustrational, but not impossible. If these rudiments are taught prior to delving into the lessons on problem solving, then the instruction will result in more positive outcomes in student understanding. To be successful, the Introduction to instruction on solving problems could begin with a multimedia presentation of a predicament to establish a purpose for the lessons and promote interest. In the Body of the lesson, an instructor should grant time to reviewing the learners’ background knowledge and relate that to the initial predicament discussed in the Introduction. Reviewing the instruction in the Conclusion should involve applying the newly learned skills to a myriad of situations with overt clues about solving these problems and lots of positive praise. Effective assessment of problem solving instruction must include previously unseen predicaments, such as case studies or simulations. After the assessment, it is essential the instructor provide specific feedback and remediation to the course participants. (Ragan & Smith, 1999)


(Chapters nine through thirteen will concentrate on strategies necessary for teaching problem-solving.)

Ch.9 Strategies for Declarative Knowledge Instruction
             Being a major type of learning, Declarative Knowledge is one of the basic prerequisites for learning problem solving. Declarative knowledge is the essential memorization and understanding of facts and how they relate to one another. There seem to be more published methods for supporting declarative learning than any other type of learning, but the common thread all of these carry is that cognitive processes are best supported with making connections to a learner’s current knowledge and helping them organize that information. Elaborating on that knowledge is also imperative as it provides a framework for processing it. Overall, there are three major categories of all strategies for declarative knowledge instruction: linking, organization, and elaboration (Ragan & Smith, 1999). I especially got a kick out the authors’ description of the propositional nature of facts such as, “Ann Richardson was the Governor of Texas in 1991.” Obviously, their editors have an understanding of the facts with their declarative knowledge and, therefore, did not catch the err; her name is Ann Richards :-)

Ch.10 Strategies for Instruction Leading to Concept Learning
The concepts of learning fall into two distinct categories: concrete and abstract (Ragan & Smith, 1999). Concrete concepts, like a cell phone, can be identified by their physical characteristics, while abstract concepts, like the idea of democracy, must be defined in other ways. Just as there are two categories of concepts, there are two strategies for concept instruction: the Inquiry Approach and the Expository Approach. The Inquiry Strategy offers examples and non-examples to a learner. The Expository Approach is similar to the Inquiry Approach, but it adds a layer of discussing the best examples and how it exemplifies the distinctiveness of the concept. The Introduction to a lesson on Concept Learning must gain the learners’ attention and establish an instructional purpose. In this way, it aligns absolutely to the method for instruction about problem-solving. In fact, the Introduction, Body, Conclusion, and Assessment each have parallels to the chapter eight Problem-Solving umbrella, therefore I do not feel it is critical to elaborate on those here.

Ch.11 Strategies for Instruction Leading to Principle Learning
Principle learning focuses on teaching students the relationships between two to three concepts (Ragan & Smith, 1999). When building instruction for principle learning, it is important to support complete understanding of the principle and how to apply it. This is a more complex construct than the declarative knowledge of being able to state the principle. As with other strategies, certain conditions are inherent to the success of the instruction; And, either the Inquiry Approach or the Expository Approach can be modeled as both offer learner benefits. Strategies for developing this instruction include introducing the principle as a situation displaying the relationship between the concepts. The body of the lesson should encourage student interaction and facilitate conversations for solidifying understanding about applying the principle to multiple scenarios. Overall, the lesson characteristics exhibit similarities to the Problem-Solving Instructional Strategies but with a heavier emphasis on specific feedback during class discussion about the principles and relationships.

Ch.12 Strategies for Instruction Leading to Learning Procedures
There are two types of procedures, complex and simple (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Memorization of the steps in any type of procedure is simple declarative knowledge, while the application of those steps in appropriate situations is indicative of a learner’s true understanding. Instructional strategies for the two types of procedures vary slightly; simple procedures are taught in a fundamental manner (steps presented, demonstrated, practiced), while complex procedures are initially simplified and elaborated on after the learner understands the basic concepts. Often the complex procedures will include if-then scenarios which require the transfer of background knowledge. An emphasis must also be made on the importance of each step in the procedure to build value for the learner, and support their ability to choose a correct path given variables in real-world application.

Ch.13 Strategies for Cognitive Strategy Instruction
Just as we can teach teachers how to teach, we can also teach learners how to learn. Building instruction to increase cognition through learning strategies is critical to learner success in an array of areas, but is especially critical for struggling learners. This chapter discusses both learning and thinking strategies. The cognitive and affective strategies can be taught as embedded learning, but of primary importance is the instructor’s comprehensive knowledge of the learning strategies. The implementation of instruction in cognitive strategies must be provided by a live teacher who can direct immediate feedback to the learner.

Ch.14 Strategies for Attitude Change, Motivation, and Interest
Chapter fourteen offers information about structuring lessons which integrate positive behavior supports to effect an attitude change and motivate the learner. The brain functioning spotlighted in this chapter can best be compared to a universal design for learning with the recognition networks being the “what” of learning, the strategic networks being the “how” of learning, and the affective networks being the “why” of learning. Smith and Ragan break down the individual learning strategies for each of the three categories: attitude change, motivation, and interest by specifying interventions for students and methodologies for teachers. Most intriguing to me is also the most significant – the instructional objectives for attitude objectives. These instructional objectives include demonstrating the desired behavior, practicing that desired behavior through role-playing, and reinforcement of the behavior (Smith & Ragan, 1999). This is by far my favorite chapter, and something I feel is critical in supporting student learning. After all, if they detest you they will refuse to learn from you.

Ch.15 Strategies for Psychomotor Skill Learning
The physical and cognitive processes involved in learning psychomotor skills are quite complex. Chapter fifteen delineates the difference between each skill involved in learning motions associated with a specific task, and the categories which psychomotor skills can be broken into- discrete skills (specific steps) vs. continuous (subtle transitions between steps), closed (no environmental influence) vs. open (environment dictates adjustments, and person motion /object motion (Smith & Ragan, 1999). The chapter also addresses the crucial components for a solid grasp on the tasks, which include control of executive sub-routines and temporal pattern in a with almost subconscious zeal J Learning strategies must take into account the difference in feedback for learning psychomotor skills than in other learning processes; it is more of an internal process of feedback, rather than swift instructor feedback as in other learning processes. Also, heavy emphasis should be placed on task analysis with a specific three-phase approach to the actual instruction.
Ch.16 Designing Delivery and Management Strategies
Delivery strategies involve determining the most appropriate media for supporting curricular objectives. In this modern era there are more delivery methods than ever before and determining the most appropriate can be especially daunting. As a protocol for my assistive technology evaluations I follow the SETT process. That is, I look at the student’s setting, environment, and tasks before I recommend a tool. In chapter sixteen, Smith and Ragan review roughly the same protocol for computers, print, video, interactive multimedia, slides and filmstrips, distance education, and people. The text, being published prior to the idevice craze, does not involve specific apps or uses for personal computing tablets but the authors were quite forward-thinking in their suggestions. This chapter also does a great job of specifying organizational strategies given different student groupings and tools.

Ch.17 Macro Strategies: Integration of Types of Learning
Chapter seventeen delves into curriculum development as it relates to micro-level strategies. It is important to note, that oftentimes curriculum emphasizes what to teach rather than how to teach and this is a reversal of strategically designed lessons. Throughout chapter seventeen, the authors also emphasize the importance of emphasizing relationships to the learner. A powerful correlation is made between the integration of technology and the organization of curriculum; however more purposeful attention should be made to context, the learners themselves, learning tasks/goals, and the purpose of the curriculum (Smith & Ragan, 1999).

Ragan, Tillman J. and Smith, Patricia L. Instructional Design: Second Edition Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , 1999.

Google Integration Project

The most effective application I can find for my project is to instruct the teachers of my district in a few of the AT tools we have universally available to them, yet aren’t being implemented for best practices. So, I will be focusing my lesson on teachers in Northeast ISD. I am the only trainer for this in my district, therefore I will be conducting the lesson, however I will incorporate Google Docs and the survey tool to gain feedback from the teachers enrolled in my training. I am tasked with supporting all of the secondary campuses in our district with their high-incidence special education students, therefore I have twenty campuses looking toward me for training. I like visual tools for organizing information and that is why I feel it is important to embed a Google calendar into the training. The Google Calendar has some great features, including reminders, which can help teachers who are already inundated with work and expectations to stay on top of upcoming courses and goals. Since, I will be demonstrating the use of specific software I am most comfortable applying strategies for procedural learning to my lesson development. 

Sir Ken Robinson inspires others to utilize creative thinking for fleshing out problems. Some of his words were truly inspiring, while others are quite baffling if you delve deeper into the possible ramifications of his ideologies. I am in complete agreement with his insistence that the education system does not need reform, it needs a revolution. He is correct. We need to honor craftsman and professionals in a myriad of jobs and develop programs which allow students to explore their interests and feel successful in careers which may not include a college-bound post-secondary portfolio. There is a point which I most definitely do not agree with Sir Robinson. He made the following statement in his 2010 Ted Talk, “We must disenthrall ourselves from things we take for granted as the natural order.” Actually, this action would pull us apart from the beauty of individual cultures and the fabric of society. I believe, it is our right as humans to take some things for granted as the natural order: wearing watches, honoring teachers, and home-made chicken pot pie are among them. These examples may be trivial, but if we disenthrall ourselves from that which we take for granted, aren’t we disengaging ourselves from the past? Moving beyond that statement, learned much from his aphorism, “Human communities depend upon a diversity of talent, not a singular conception of ability. And at the heart of our challenge is to reconstitute our sense of ability and of intelligence.”  This especially strikes a chord with me, because I see many students who are talented artists, creative musicians, and empathetic listeners yet they are made to feel less valued in society because their strengths do not lie in book learning. We do need a revolution in the education system, and it begins with appreciating the differences our students bring to the world and helping them build on those strengths.